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em off. However, if the extension has
a significant chance of breaking any real programs or scripts, then it
is not really upward compatible. So you should try to redesign its
interface to make it upward compatible.
Many GNU programs suppress extensions that conflict with POSIX if the
environment variable `POSIXLY_CORRECT' is defined (even if it is
defined with a null value). Please make your program recognize this
variable if appropriate.
When a feature is used only by users (not by programs or command
files), and it is done poorly in Unix, feel free to replace it
completely with something totally different and better. (For example,
`vi' is replaced with Emacs.) But it is nice to offer a compatible
feature as well. (There is a free `vi' clone, so we offer it.)
Additional useful features are welcome regardless of whether there
is any precedent for them.
File: standards.info, Node: Using Extensions, Next: Standard C, Prev: Compatibility, Up: Design Advice
3.3 Using Non-standard Features
===============================
Many GNU facilities that already exist support a number of convenient
extensions over the comparable Unix facilities. Whether to use these
extensions in implementing your program is a difficult question.
On the one hand, using the extensions can make a cleaner program.
On the other hand, people will not be able to build the program unless
the other GNU tools are available. This might cause the program to
work on fewer kinds of machines.
With some extensions, it might be easy to provide both alternatives.
For example, you can define functions with a "keyword" `INLINE' and
define that as a macro to expand into either `inline' or nothing,
depending on the compiler.
In general, perhaps it is best not to use the extensions if you can
straightforwardly do without them, but to use the extensions if they
are a big improvement.
An exception to this rule are the large, established programs (such
as Emacs) which run on a great variety of systems. Using GNU
extensions in such programs would make many users unhappy, so we don't
do that.
Another exception is for programs that are used as part of
compilation: anything that must be compiled with other compilers in
order to bootstrap the GNU compilation facilities. If these require
the GNU compiler, then no one can compile them without having them
installed already. That would be extremely troublesome in certain
cases.
File: standards.info, Node: Standard C, Next: Conditional Compilation, Prev: Using Extensions, Up: Design Advice
3.4 Standard C and Pre-Standard C
=================================
1989 Standard C is widespread enough now that it is ok to use its
features in new programs. There is one exception: do not ever use the
"trigraph" feature of Standard C.
1999 Standard C is not widespread yet, so please do not require its
features in programs. It is ok to use its features if they are present.
However, it is easy to support pre-standard compilers in most
programs, so if you know how to do that, feel free. If a program you
are maintaining has such support, you should try to keep it working.
To support pre-standard C, instead of writing function definitions in
standard prototype form,
int
foo (int x, int y)
...
write the definition in pre-standard style like this,
int
foo (x, y)
int x, y;
...
and use a separate declaration to specify the argument prototype:
int foo (int, int);
You need such a declaration anyway, in a header file, to get the
benefit of prototypes in all the files where the function is called.
And once you have the declaration, you normally lose nothing by writing
the function definition in the pre-standard style.
This technique does not work for integer types narrower than `int'.
If you think of an argument as being of a type narrower than `int',
declare it as `int' instead.
There are a few special cases where this technique is hard to use.
For example, if a function argument needs to hold the system type
`dev_t', you run into trouble, because `dev_t' is shorter than `int' on
some machines; but you cannot use `int' instead, because `dev_t' is
wider than `int' on some machines. There is no type you can safely use
on all machines in a non-standard definition. The only way to support
non-standard C and pass such an argument is to check the width of
`dev_t' using Autoconf and choose the argument type accordingly. This
may not be worth the trouble.
In order to support pre-standard compilers that do not recognize
prototypes, you may want to use a preprocessor macro like this:
/* Declare the prototype for a general external function. */
#if defined (__STDC__) || defined (WINDOWSNT)
#define P_(proto) proto
#else
#define P_(proto) ()
#endif
File: standards.info, Node: Conditional Compilation, Prev: Standard C, Up: Design Advice
3.5 Conditional Compilation
===========================
When supporting configuration options already known when building your
program we prefer using `if (... )' over conditional compilation, as in
the former case the compiler is able to perform more extensive checking
of all possible code paths.
For example, please write
if (HAS_FOO)
...
else
...
instead of:
#ifdef HAS_FOO
...
#else
...
#endif
A modern compiler such as GCC will generate exactly the same code in
both cases, and we have been using similar techniques with good success
in several projects. Of course, the former method assumes that
`HAS_FOO' is defined as either 0 or 1.
While this is not a silver bullet solving all portability problems,
and is not always appropriate, following this policy would have saved
GCC developers many hours, or even days, per year.
In the case of function-like macros like `REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE' in GCC
which cannot be simply used in `if (...)' statements, there is an easy
workaround. Simply introduce another macro `HAS_REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE' as
in the following example:
#ifdef REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE
#define HAS_REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE 1
#else
#define HAS_REVERSIBLE_CC_MODE 0
#endif
File: standards.info, Node: Program Behavior, Next: Writing C, Prev: Design Advice, Up: Top
4 Program Behavior for All Programs
***********************************
This chapter describes conventions for writing robust software. It
also describes general standards for error messages, the command line
interface, and how libraries should behave.
* Menu:
* Non-GNU Standards:: We consider standards such as POSIX;
we don't "obey" them.
* Semantics:: Writing robust programs.
* Libraries:: Library behavior.
* Errors:: Formatting error messages.
* User Interfaces:: Standards about interfaces generally.
* Graphical Interfaces:: Standards for graphical interfaces.
* Command-Line Interfaces:: Standards for command line interfaces.
* Option Table:: Table of long options.
* OID Allocations:: Table of OID slots for GNU.
* Memory Usage:: When and how to care about memory needs.
* File Usage:: Which files to use, and where.
File: standards.info, Node: Non-GNU Standards, Next: Semantics, Up: Program Behavior
4.1 Non-GNU Standards
=====================
The GNU Project regards standards published by other organizations as
suggestions, not orders. We consider those standards, but we do not
"obey" them. In developing a GNU program, you should implement an
outside standard's specifications when that makes the GNU system better
overall in an objective sense. When it doesn't, you shouldn't.
In most cases, following published standards is convenient for
users--it means that their programs or scripts will work more portably.
For instance, GCC implements nearly all the features of Standard C as
specified by that standard. C program developers would be unhappy if
it did not. And GNU utilities mostly follow specifications of POSIX.2;
shell script writers and users would be unhappy if our programs were
incompatible.
But we do not follow either of these specifications rigidly, and
there are specific points on which we decided not to follow them, so as
to make the GNU system better for users.
For instance, Standard C says that nearly all extensions to C are
prohibited. How silly! GCC implements many extensions, some of which
were later adopted as part of the standard. If you want these
constructs to give an error message as "required" by the standard, you
must specify `--pedantic', which was implemented only so that we can
say "GCC is a 100% implementation of the standard," not because there
is any reason to actually use it.
POSIX.2 specifies that `df' and `du' must output sizes by default in
units of 512 bytes. What users want is units of 1k, so that is what we
do by default. If you want the ridiculous behavior "required" by
POSIX, you must set the environment variable `POSIXLY_CORRECT' (which
was originally going to be named `POSIX_ME_HARDER').
GNU utilities also depart from the letter of the POSIX.2
specification when they support long-named command-line options, and
intermixing options with ordinary arguments. This minor
incompatibility with POSIX is never a problem in practice, and it is
very useful.
In particular, don't reject a new feature, or remove an old one,
merely because a standard says it is "forbidden" or "deprecated."
File: standards.info, Node: Semantics, Next: Libraries, Prev: Non-GNU Standards, Up: Program Behavior
4.2 Writing Robust Programs
===========================
Avoid arbitrary limits on the length or number of _any_ data structure,
including file names, lines, files, and symbols, by allocating all data
structures dynamically. In most Unix utilities, "long lines are
silently truncated". This is not acceptable in a GNU utility.
Utilities reading files should not drop NUL characters, or any other
nonprinting characters _including those with codes above 0177_. The
only sensible exceptions would be utilities specifically intended for
interface to certain types of terminals or printers that can't handle
those characters. Whenever possible, try to make programs work
properly with sequences of bytes that represent multibyte characters,
using encodings such as UTF-8 and others.
Check every system call for an error return, unless you know you
wish to ignore errors. Include the system error text (from `perror' or
equivalent) in _every_ error message resulting from a failing system
call, as well as the name of the file if any and the name of the
utility. Just "cannot open foo.c" or "stat failed" is not sufficient.
Check every call to `malloc' or `realloc' to see if it returned
zero. Check `realloc' even if you are making the block smaller; in a
system that rounds block sizes to a power of 2, `realloc' may get a
different block if you ask for less space.
In Unix, `realloc' can destroy the storage block if it returns zero.
GNU `realloc' does not have this bug: if it fails, the original block
is unchanged. Feel free to assume the bug is fixed. If you wish to
run your program on Unix, and wish to avoid lossage in this case, you
can use the GNU `malloc'.
You must expect `free' to alter the contents of the block that was
freed. Anything you want to fetch from the block, you must fetch before
calling `free'.
If `malloc' fails in a noninteractive program, make that a fatal
error. In an interactive program (one that reads commands from the
user), it is better to abort the command and return to the command
reader loop. This allows the user to kill other processes to free up
virtual memory, and then try the command again.
Use `getopt_long' to decode arguments, unless the argument syntax
makes this unreasonable.
When static storage is to be written in during program execution, use
explicit C code to initialize it. Reserve C initialized declarations
for data that will not be changed.
Try to avoid low-level interfaces to obscure Unix data structures
(such as file directories, utmp, or the layout of kernel memory), since
these are less likely to work compatibly. If you need to find all the
files in a directory, use `readdir' or some other high-level interface.
These are supported compatibly by GNU.
The preferred signal handling facilities are the BSD variant of
`signal', and the POSIX `sigaction' function; the alternative USG
`signal' interface is an inferior design.
Nowadays, using the POSIX signal functions may be the easiest way to
make a program portable. If you use `signal', then on GNU/Linux
systems running GNU libc version 1, you should include `bsd/signal.h'
instead of `signal.h', so as to get BSD behavior. It is up to you
whether to support systems where `signal' has only the USG behavior, or
give up on them.
In error checks that detect "impossible" conditions, just abort.
There is usually no point in printing any message. These checks
indicate the existence of bugs. Whoever wants to fix the bugs will have
to read the source code and run a debugger. So explain the problem with
comments in the source. The relevant data will be in variables, which
are easy to examine with the debugger, so there is no point moving them
elsewhere.
Do not use a count of errors as the exit status for a program.
_That does not work_, because exit status values are limited to 8 bits
(0 through 255). A single run of the program might have 256 errors; if
you try to return 256 as the exit status, the parent process will see 0
as the status, and it will appear that the program succeeded.
If you make temporary files, check the `TMPDIR' environment
variable; if that variable is defined, use the specified directory
instead of `/tmp'.
In addition, be aware that there is a possible security problem when
creating temporary files in world-writable directories. In C, you can
avoid this problem by creating temporary files in this manner:
fd = open (filename, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_EXCL, 0600);
or by using the `mkstemps' function from libiberty.
In bash, use `set -C' to avoid this problem.
File: standards.info, Node: Libraries, Next: Errors, Prev: Semantics, Up: Program Behavior
4.3 Library Behavior
====================
Try to make library functions reentrant. If they need to do dynamic
storage allocation, at least try to avoid any nonreentrancy aside from
that of `malloc' itself.
Here are certain name conventions for libraries, to avoid name
conflicts.
Choose a name prefix for the library, more than two characters long.
All external function and variable names should start with this prefix.
In addition, there should only be one of these in any given library
member. This usually means putting each one in a separate source file.
An exception can be made when two external symbols are always used
together, so that no reasonable program could use one without the
other; then they can both go in the same file.
External symbols that are not documented entry points for the user
should have names beginning with `_'. The `_' should be followed by
the chosen name prefix for the library, to prevent collisions with
other libraries. These can go in the same files with user entry points
if you like.
Static functions and variables can be used as you like and need not
fit any naming convention.
File: standards.info, Node: Errors, Next: User Interfaces, Prev: Libraries, Up: Program Behavior
4.4 Formatting Error Messages
=============================
Error messages from compilers should look like this:
SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO: MESSAGE
If you want to mention the column number, use one of these formats:
SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO:COLUMN: MESSAGE
SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO.COLUMN: MESSAGE
Line numbers should start from 1 at the beginning of the file, and
column numbers should start from 1 at the beginning of the line. (Both
of these conventions are chosen for compatibility.) Calculate column
numbers assuming that space and all ASCII printing characters have
equal width, and assuming tab stops every 8 columns.
The error message can also give both the starting and ending
positions of the erroneous text. There are several formats so that you
can avoid redundant information such as a duplicate line number. Here
are the possible formats:
SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO-1.COLUMN-1-LINENO-2.COLUMN-2: MESSAGE
SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO-1.COLUMN-1-COLUMN-2: MESSAGE
SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO-1-LINENO-2: MESSAGE
When an error is spread over several files, you can use this format:
FILE-1:LINENO-1.COLUMN-1-FILE-2:LINENO-2.COLUMN-2: MESSAGE
Error messages from other noninteractive programs should look like
this:
PROGRAM:SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO: MESSAGE
when there is an appropriate source file, or like this:
PROGRAM: MESSAGE
when there is no relevant source file.
If you want to mention the column number, use this format:
PROGRAM:SOURCE-FILE-NAME:LINENO:COLUMN: MESSAGE
In an interactive program (one that is reading commands from a
terminal), it is better not to include the program name in an error
message. The place to indicate which program is running is in the
prompt or with the screen layout. (When the same program runs with
input from a source other than a terminal, it is not interactive and
would do best to print error messages using the noninteractive style.)
The string MESSAGE should not begin with a capital letter when it
follows a program name and/or file name, because that isn't the
beginning of a sentence. (The sentence conceptually starts at the
beginning of the line.) Also, it should not end with a period.
Error messages from interactive programs, and other messages such as
usage messages, should start with a capital letter. But they should not
end with a period.
File: standards.info, Node: User Interfaces, Next: Graphical Interfaces, Prev: Errors, Up: Program Behavior
4.5 Standards for Interfaces Generally
======================================
Please don't make the behavior of a utility depend on the name used to
invoke it. It is useful sometimes to make a link to a utility with a
different name, and that should not change what it does.
Instead, use a run time option or a compilation switch or both to
select among the alternate behaviors.
Likewise, please don't make the behavior of the program depend on the
type of output device it is used with. Device independence is an
important principle of the system's design; do not compromise it merely
to save someone from typing an option now and then. (Variation in error
message syntax when using a terminal is ok, because that is a side issue
that people do not depend on.)
If you think one behavior is most useful when the output is to a
terminal, and another is most useful when the output is a file or a
pipe, then it is usually best to make the default behavior the one that
is useful with output to a terminal, and have an option for the other
behavior.
Compatibility requires certain programs to depend on the type of
output device. It would be disastrous if `ls' or `sh' did not do so in
the way all users expect. In some of these cases, we supplement the
program with a preferred alternate version that does not depend on the
output device type. For example, we provide a `dir' program much like
`ls' except that its default output format is always multi-column
format.
File: standards.info, Node: Graphical Interfaces, Next: Command-Line Interfaces, Prev: User Interfaces, Up: Program Behavior
4.6 Standards for Graphical Interfaces
======================================
When you write a program that provides a graphical user interface,
please make it work with the X Window System and the GTK+ toolkit
unless the functionality specifically requires some alternative (for
example, "displaying jpeg images while in console mode").
In addition, please provide a command-line interface to control the
functionality. (In many cases, the graphical user interface can be a
separate program which invokes the command-line program.) This is so
that the same jobs can be done from scripts.
Please also consider providing a D-bus interface for use from other
running programs, such as within GNOME. (GNOME used to use CORBA for
this, but that is being phased out.) In addition, consider providing a
library interface (for use from C), and perhaps a keyboard-driven
console interface (for use by users from console mode). Once you are
doing the work to provide the functionality and the graphical
interface, these won't be much extra work.
File: standards.info, Node: Command-Line Interfaces, Next: Option Table, Prev: Graphical Interfaces, Up: Program Behavior
4.7 Standards for Command Line Interfaces
=========================================
It is a good idea to follow the POSIX guidelines for the command-line
options of a program. The easiest way to do this is to use `getopt' to
parse them. Note that the GNU version of `getopt' will normally permit
options anywhere among the arguments unless the special argument `--'
is used. This is not what POSIX specifies; it is a GNU extension.
Please define long-named options that are equivalent to the
single-letter Unix-style options. We hope to make GNU more user
friendly this way. This is easy to do with the GNU function
`getopt_long'.
One of the advantages of long-named options is that they can be
consistent from program to program. For example, users should be able
to expect the "verbose" option of any GNU program which has one, to be
spelled precisely `--verbose'. To achieve this uniformity, look at the
table of common long-option names when you choose the option names for
your program (*note Option Table::).
It is usually a good idea for file names given as ordinary arguments
to be input files only; any output files would be specified using
options (preferably `-o' or `--output'). Even if you allow an output
file name as an ordinary argument for compatibility, try to provide an
option as another way to specify it. This will lead to more consistency
among GNU utilities, and fewer idiosyncrasies for users to remember.
All programs should support two standard options: `--version' and
`--help'. CGI programs should accept these as command-line options,
and also if given as the `PATH_INFO'; for instance, visiting
`http://example.org/p.cgi/--help' in a browser should output the same
information as invoking `p.cgi --help' from the command line.
* Menu:
* --version:: The standard output for --version.
* --help:: The standard output for --help.
File: standards.info, Node: --version, Next: --help, Up: Command-Line Interfaces
4.7.1 `--version'
-----------------
The standard `--version' option should direct the program to print
information about its name, version, origin and legal status, all on
standard output, and then exit successfully. Other options and
arguments should be ignored once this is seen, and the program should
not perform its normal function.
The first line is meant to be easy for a program to parse; the
version number proper starts after the last space. In addition, it
contains the canonical name for this program, in this format:
GNU Emacs 19.30
The program's name should be a constant string; _don't_ compute it from
`argv[0]'. The idea is to state the standard or canonical name for the
program, not its file name. There are other ways to find out the
precise file name where a command is found in `PATH'.
If the program is a subsidiary part of a larger package, mention the
package name in parentheses, like this:
emacsserver (GNU Emacs) 19.30
If the package has a version number which is different from this
program's version number, you can mention the package version number
just before the close-parenthesis.
If you _need_ to mention the version numbers of libraries which are
distributed separately from the package which contains this program,
you can do so by printing an additional line of version info for each
library you want to mention. Use the same format for these lines as for
the first line.
Please do not mention all of the libraries that the program uses
"just for completeness"--that would produce a lot of unhelpful clutter.
Please mention library version numbers only if you find in practice that
they are very important to you in debugging.
The following line, after the version number line or lines, should
be a copyright notice. If more than one copyright notice is called
for, put each on a separate line.
Next should follow a line stating the license, preferably using one
of abbrevations below, and a brief statement that the program is free
software, and that users are free to copy and change it. Also mention
that there is no warranty, to the extent permitted by law. See
recommended wording below.
It is ok to finish the output with a list of the major authors of the
program, as a way of giving credit.
Here's an example of output that follows these rules:
GNU hello 2.3
Copyright (C) 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later <http://gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html>
This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute it.
There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law.
You should adapt this to your program, of course, filling in the
proper year, copyright holder, name of program, and the references to
distribution terms, and changing the rest of the wording as necessary.
This copyright notice only needs to mention the most recent year in
which changes were made--there's no need to list the years for previous
versions' changes. You don't have to mention the name of the program in
these notices, if that is inconvenient, since it appeared in the first
line. (The rules are different for copyright notices in source files;
*note Copyright Notices: (maintain)Copyright Notices.)
Translations of the above lines must preserve the validity of the
copyright notices (*note Internationalization::). If the translation's
character set supports it, the `(C)' should be replaced with the
copyright symbol, as follows:
(the official copyright symbol, which is the letter C in a circle);
Write the word "Copyright" exactly like that, in English. Do not
translate it into another language. International treaties recognize
the English word "Copyright"; translations into other languages do not
have legal significance.
Finally, here is the table of our suggested license abbreviations.
Any abbreviation can be followed by `vVERSION[+]', meaning that
particular version, or later versions with the `+', as shown above.
In the case of exceptions for extra permissions with the GPL, we use
`/' for a separator; the version number can follow the license
abbreviation as usual, as in the examples below.
GPL
GNU General Public License, `http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html'.
LGPL
GNU Lesser General Public License,
`http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.html'.
GPL/Ada
GNU GPL with the exception for Ada.
Apache
The Apache Software Foundation license,
`http://www.apache.org/licenses'.
Artistic
The Artistic license used for Perl,
`http://www.perlfoundation.org/legal'.
Expat
The Expat license, `http://www.jclark.com/xml/copying.txt'.
MPL
The Mozilla Public License, `http://www.mozilla.org/MPL/'.
OBSD
The original (4-clause) BSD license, incompatible with the GNU GPL
`http://www.xfree86.org/3.3.6/COPYRIGHT2.html#6'.
PHP
The license used for PHP, `http://www.php.net/license/'.
public domain
The non-license that is being in the public domain,
`http://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html#PublicDomain'.
Python
The license for Python, `http://www.python.org/2.0.1/license.html'.
RBSD
The revised (3-clause) BSD, compatible with the GNU GPL,
`http://www.xfree86.org/3.3.6/COPYRIGHT2.html#5'.
X11
The simple non-copyleft license used for most versions of the X
Window System, `http://www.xfree86.org/3.3.6/COPYRIGHT2.html#3'.
Zlib
The license for Zlib, `http://www.gzip.org/zlib/zlib_license.html'.
More information about these licenses and many more are on the GNU
licensing web pages, `http://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html'.
File: standards.info, Node: --help, Prev: --version, Up: Command-Line Interfaces
4.7.2 `--help'
--------------
The standard `--help' option should output brief documentation for how
to invoke the program, on standard output, then exit successfully.
Other options and arguments should be ignored once this is seen, and
the program should not perform its normal function.
Near the end of the `--help' option's output, please place lines
giving the email address for bug reports, the package's home page
(normally <http://www.gnu.org/software/PKG>, and the general page for
help using GNU programs. The format should be like this:
Report bugs to: MAILING-ADDRESS
PKG home page: <http://www.gnu.org/software/PKG/>
General help using GNU software: <http://www.gnu.org/gethelp/>
It is ok to mention other appropriate mailing lists and web pages.
File: standards.info, Node: Option Table, Next: OID Allocations, Prev: Command-Line Interfaces, Up: Program Behavior
4.8 Table of Long Options
=========================
Here is a table of long options used by GNU programs. It is surely
incomplete, but we aim to list all the options that a new program might
want to be compatible with. If you use names not already in the table,
please send <bug-standards@gnu.org> a list of them, with their
meanings, so we can update the table.
`after-date'
`-N' in `tar'.
`all'
`-a' in `du', `ls', `nm', `stty', `uname', and `unexpand'.
`all-text'
`-a' in `diff'.
`almost-all'
`-A' in `ls'.
`append'
`-a' in `etags', `tee', `time'; `-r' in `tar'.
`archive'
`-a' in `cp'.
`archive-name'
`-n' in `shar'.
`arglength'
`-l' in `m4'.
`ascii'
`-a' in `diff'.
`assign'
`-v' in `gawk'.
`assume-new'
`-W' in `make'.
`assume-old'
`-o' in `make'.
`auto-check'
`-a' in `recode'.
`auto-pager'
`-a' in `wdiff'.
`auto-reference'
`-A' in `ptx'.
`avoid-wraps'
`-n' in `wdiff'.
`background'
For server programs, run in the background.
`backward-search'
`-B' in `ctags'.
`basename'
`-f' in `shar'.
`batch'
Used in GDB.
`baud'
Used in GDB.
`before'
`-b' in `tac'.
`binary'
`-b' in `cpio' and `diff'.
`bits-per-code'
`-b' in `shar'.
`block-size'
Used in `cpio' and `tar'.
`blocks'
`-b' in `head' and `tail'.
`break-file'
`-b' in `ptx'.
`brief'
Used in various programs to make output shorter.
`bytes'
`-c' in `head', `split', and `tail'.
`c++'
`-C' in `etags'.
`catenate'
`-A' in `tar'.
`cd'
Used in various programs to specify the directory to use.
`changes'
`-c' in `chgrp' and `chown'.
`classify'
`-F' in `ls'.
`colons'
`-c' in `recode'.
`command'
`-c' in `su'; `-x' in GDB.
`compare'
`-d' in `tar'.
`compat'
Used in `gawk'.
`compress'
`-Z' in `tar' and `shar'.
`concatenate'
`-A' in `tar'.
`confirmation'
`-w' in `tar'.
`context'
Used in `diff'.
`copyleft'
`-W copyleft' in `gawk'.
`copyright'
`-C' in `ptx', `recode', and `wdiff'; `-W copyright' in `gawk'.
`core'
Used in GDB.
`count'
`-q' in `who'.
`count-links'
`-l' in `du'.
`create'
Used in `tar' and `cpio'.
`cut-mark'
`-c' in `shar'.
`cxref'
`-x' in `ctags'.
`date'
`-d' in `touch'.
`debug'
`-d' in `make' and `m4'; `-t' in Bison.
`define'
`-D' in `m4'.
`defines'
`-d' in Bison and `ctags'.
`delete'
`-D' in `tar'.
`dereference'
`-L' in `chgrp', `chown', `cpio', `du', `ls', and `tar'.
`dereference-args'
`-D' in `du'.
`device'
Specify an I/O device (special file name).
`diacritics'
`-d' in `recode'.
`dictionary-order'
`-d' in `look'.
`diff'
`-d' in `tar'.
`digits'
`-n' in `csplit'.
`directory'
Specify the directory to use, in various programs. In `ls', it
means to show directories themselves rather than their contents.
In `rm' and `ln', it means to not treat links to directories
specially.
`discard-all'
`-x' in `strip'.
`discard-locals'
`-X' in `strip'.
`dry-run'
`-n' in `make'.
`ed'
`-e' in `diff'.
`elide-empty-files'
`-z' in `csplit'.
`end-delete'
`-x' in `wdiff'.
`end-insert'
`-z' in `wdiff'.
`entire-new-file'
`-N' in `diff'.
`environment-overrides'
`-e' in `make'.
`eof'
`-e' in `xargs'.
`epoch'
Used in GDB.
`error-limit'
Used in `makeinfo'.
`error-output'
`-o' in `m4'.
`escape'
`-b' in `ls'.
`exclude-from'
`-X' in `tar'.
`exec'
Used in GDB.
`exit'
`-x' in `xargs'.
`exit-0'
`-e' in `unshar'.
`expand-tabs'
`-t' in `diff'.
`expression'
`-e' in `sed'.
`extern-only'
`-g' in `nm'.
`extract'
`-i' in `cpio'; `-x' in `tar'.
`faces'
`-f' in `finger'.
`fast'
`-f' in `su'.
`fatal-warnings'
`-E' in `m4'.
`file'
`-f' in `gawk', `info', `make', `mt', `sed', and `tar'.
`field-separator'
`-F' in `gawk'.
`file-prefix'
`-b' in Bison.
`file-type'
`-F' in `ls'.
`files-from'
`-T' in `tar'.
`fill-column'
Used in `makeinfo'.
`flag-truncation'
`-F' in `ptx'.