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PyO3: Architecture

This document roughly describes the high-level architecture of PyO3. If you want to become familiar with the codebase you are in the right place!

Overview

PyO3 provides a bridge between Rust and Python, based on the Python/C API. Thus, PyO3 has low-level bindings of these API as its core. On top of that, we have higher-level bindings to operate Python objects safely. Also, to define Python classes and functions in Rust code, we have trait PyClass and a set of protocol traits (e.g., PyIterProtocol) for supporting object protocols (i.e., __dunder__ methods). Since implementing PyClass requires lots of boilerplate, we have a proc-macro #[pyclass].

To summarize, there are six main parts to the PyO3 codebase.

  1. Low-level bindings of Python/C API.
  2. Bindings to Python objects.
  3. PyClass and related functionalities.
  4. Protocol methods like __getitem__.
  5. Procedural macros to simplify usage for users.
  6. build.rs and pyo3-build-config

1. Low-level bindings of Python/C API

pyo3-ffi contains wrappers of Python/C API.

We aim to provide straight-forward Rust wrappers resembling the file structure of cpython/Include.

However, we still lack some APIs and are continuously updating the module to match the file contents upstream in CPython. The tracking issue is #1289, and contribution is welcome.

In the pyo3-ffi crate, there is lots of conditional compilation such as #[cfg(Py_LIMITED_API)], #[cfg(Py_37)], and #[cfg(PyPy)]. Py_LIMITED_API corresponds to #define Py_LIMITED_API macro in Python/C API. With Py_LIMITED_API, we can build a Python-version-agnostic binary called an abi3 wheel. Py_37 means that the API is available from Python >= 3.7. There are also Py_38, Py_39, and so on. PyPy means that the API definition is for PyPy. Those flags are set in build.rs.

2. Bindings to Python objects

src/types contains bindings to built-in types of Python, such as dict and list. For historical reasons, Python's object is called PyAny in PyO3 and located in src/types/any.rs. Currently, PyAny is a straightforward wrapper of ffi::PyObject, defined as:

#[repr(transparent)]
pub struct PyAny(UnsafeCell<ffi::PyObject>);

All built-in types are defined as a C struct. For example, dict is defined as:

typedef struct {
    /* Base object */
    PyObject ob_base;
    /* Number of items in the dictionary */
    Py_ssize_t ma_used;
    /* Dictionary version */
    uint64_t ma_version_tag;
    PyDictKeysObject *ma_keys;
    PyObject **ma_values;
} PyDictObject;

However, we cannot access such a specific data structure with #[cfg(Py_LIMITED_API)] set. Thus, all builtin objects are implemented as opaque types by wrapping PyAny, e.g.,:

#[repr(transparent)]
pub struct PyDict(PyAny);

Note that PyAny is not a pointer, and it is usually used as a pointer to the object in the Python heap, as &PyAny. This design choice can be changed (see the discussion in #1056).

Since we need lots of boilerplate for implementing common traits for these types (e.g., AsPyPointer, AsRef<PyAny>, and Debug), we have some macros in src/types/mod.rs.

3. PyClass and related functionalities

src/pycell.rs, src/pyclass.rs, and src/type_object.rs contain types and traits to make #[pyclass] work. Also, src/pyclass_init.rs and [src/impl_/pyclass.rs] have related functionalities.

To realize object-oriented programming in C, all Python objects must have the following two fields at the beginning.

#[repr(C)]
pub struct PyObject {
    pub ob_refcnt: usize,
    pub ob_type: *mut PyTypeObject,
    ...
}

Thanks to this guarantee, casting *mut A to *mut PyObject is valid if A is a Python object.

To ensure this guarantee, we have a wrapper struct PyCell<T> in src/pycell.rs which is roughly:

#[repr(C)]
pub struct PyCell<T: PyClass> {
    object: crate::ffi::PyObject,
    inner: T,
}

Thus, when copying a Rust struct to a Python object, we first allocate PyCell on the Python heap and then move T into it. Also, PyCell provides RefCell-like methods to ensure Rust's borrow rules. See the documentation for more.

PyCell<T> requires that T implements PyClass. This trait is somewhat complex and derives many traits, but the most important one is PyTypeInfo in src/type_object.rs. PyTypeInfo is also implemented for built-in types. In Python, all objects have their types, and types are also objects of type. For example, you can see type({}) shows dict and type(type({})) shows type in Python REPL. T: PyTypeInfo implies that T has a corresponding type object.

4. Protocol methods

Python has some built-in special methods called dunder methods, such as __iter__. They are called "slots" in the abstract objects layer in Python/C API. We provide a way to implement those protocols similarly, by recognizing special names in #[pymethods], with a few new ones for slots that can not be implemented in Python, such as GC support.

5. Procedural macros to simplify usage for users.

pyo3-macros provides six proc-macro APIs: pymodule, pyproto, pyfunction, pyclass, pymethods, and #[derive(FromPyObject)]. pyo3-macros-backend has the actual implementations of these APIs. src/derive_utils.rs contains some utilities used in code generated by these proc-macros, such as parsing function arguments.

6. build.rs and pyo3-build-config

PyO3 supports a wide range of OSes, interpreters and use cases. The correct environment must be detected at build time in order to set up relevant conditional compilation correctly. This logic is captured in the pyo3-build-config crate, which is a build-dependency of pyo3 and pyo3-macros, and can also be used by downstream users in the same way.

In pyo3-build-config's build.rs the build environment is detected and inlined into the crate as a "config file". This works in all cases except for cross-compiling, where it is necessary to capture this from the pyo3 build.rs to get some extra environment variables that Cargo doesn't set for build dependencies.

The pyo3 build.rs also runs some safety checks such as ensuring the Python version detected is actually supported.

Some of the functionality of pyo3-build-config:

  • Find the interpreter for build and detect the Python version.
    • We have to set some version flags like #[cfg(Py_3_7)].
    • If the interpreter is PyPy, we set #[cfg(PyPy).
    • If the PYO3_CONFIG_FILE environment variable is set then that file's contents will be used instead of any detected configuration.
    • If the PYO3_NO_PYTHON environment variable is set then the interpreter detection is bypassed entirely and only abi3 extensions can be built.
  • Check if we are building a Python extension.
    • If we are building an extension (e.g., Python library installable by pip), we don't link libpython. Currently we use the extension-module feature for this purpose. This may change in the future. See #1123.
  • Cross-compiling configuration
    • If TARGET architecture and HOST architecture differ, we can find cross compile information from environment variables (PYO3_CROSS_LIB_DIR and PYO3_CROSS_PYTHON_VERSION) or system files. When cross compiling extension modules it is often possible to make it work without any additional user input.